Nixon's Vietnamization

Richard Nixon campaigned for the 1968 presidential election behind the promise that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor." At the time Nixon took office in 1969, roughly 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam. The war was broadly unpopular in the United States, with violent protests occurring frequently. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, President Nixon implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as Vietnamization. The goal of the American military was to buy time so it could gradually build up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces by re-equipping them with modern weapons. This policy became the cornerstone of the Nixon Doctrine.

The Johnson administration had reached an agreement with the North Vietnamese to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this agreement never fully took effect. Thus, Nixon sought to implement a policy that would ensure the safety of American forces from North Vietnamese attacks as they withdrew from and evacuated South Vietnam. No policy ever came to fruition, however, thus forcing the continuation of the American war commitment for another five years. 

Adjusting to Nixon's policy of Vietnamization, General Creighton W. Abrams, commander of the American military forces in Vietnam, advocated for smaller-scale operations against the logistics of the two North Vietnam armies, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (NLF); more openness with the media; and more meaningful cooperation with the South Vietnamese forces. Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that the U.S. troops fight long enough for the South Vietnamese army, the Army of the Republic of Viet Nam (ARVN), to improve enough to hold its own against the northern forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969-1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased fraggings of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops. 

U.S. Relations with China and the Soviet Union

One of Nixon's primary foreign policy goals was to achieve breakthroughs in U.S. relations with both the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused by the American public of being "soft on communism." These overtures resulted in an era of détente, in which the U.S. and the Soviet Union reduced their nuclear arms, enabling productive dialogue with China. 

Nixon viewed the conflict in Vietnam as merely a small part of the larger tapestry of the United States' relations with other global superpowers. Although Nixon believed the collapse of South Vietnam to be inevitable, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnamese security long enough to separate himself from any blame that a collapse might evoke. To this end, Nixon and National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and to pressure North Vietnam into favoring negotiations.

Operation Menu and the Cambodian Campaign

In order to intensify the pressure on North Vietnam to negotiate and to buy time for U.S. withdrawal, Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March of 1969 (code-named Operation Menu). The tactical goal of this bombing was to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the northern Viet Cong army. Approximately 2,756,941 tons of bombs were dropped on Cambodia over the next five years. In correlation with the bombing campaign, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese in mid-1969.

The following year, Nixon launched military incursions into Cambodian territory. This decision was enabled when, on March 18, 1970, Cambodian ruler Prince Sihanouk was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by the pro-American General Lon Nol. Cambodia's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and National Liberation Front (NLF) forces, both northern armies, be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. Taking advantage of the situation, Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by troops from the U.S. and the southern-based Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) in hopes of destroying PAVN/NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and buying time for U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and then either removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia.

Politically, the Cambodian incursion resulted in two unintended effects. First, it pushed the PAVN (the North Vietnamese Army) deeper into Cambodia, which destabilized the country. Secondly, it forced the North Vietnamese to openly support its allies, the Chinese-supported Khmer Rouge, and allowed the latter to extend their power (the Khmer Rouge would commit atrocities in the Cambodian Civil War later that decade). Moreover, the American incursion into Cambodia was especially violent compared to the behavior displayed by the North Vietnamese troops, thus increasing support for the North Vietnamese cause even further. Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, and threw his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.

Protests at Home

This incursion sparked a surge in anti-war activism in the United States. Many Americans perceived the expansion of the conflict into yet another country as a negation of Nixon's promise to de-escalate the war. Unfortunately, some of the ensuing protests resulted in tragedy. Four students were killed by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University, and two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the war, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas. Nevertheless, the actions led to charges that Nixon had a "credibility gap" regarding Vietnam.

Gradual Withdrawal of Troops 

In 1972, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. prisoners of war were freed.

Nixon Addresses the Nation about U.S. Incursions into Cambodia

Nixon launched a bombing campaign in Cambodia with mixed results.