substrate

Examples of substrate in the following topics:

• Substrates for Biosynthesis

  • Major metabolic pathways require substrates to be acted upon for the formation of larger, more complex products.
  • The major metabolic pathways require substrates to be acted upon for the formation of larger, more complex products.
  • These precursors are used as substrates for the biogenesis of large complex products.
  • This process is characterized by the production of various intermediates and molecules that function as substrates in additional pathways .
  • This pathway, comprised of a series of reactions, produces many intermediates and molecules utilized as substrates for biosynthesis in additional pathways.

• Fermentation Without Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

  • Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, lactose, and hydrogen.

• ABC Transporters

  • ABC transporters are transmembrane proteins that utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis to carry out certain biological processes including translocation of various substrates across membranes and non-transport-related processes such as translation of RNA and DNA repair.
  • They transport a wide variety of substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes, including metabolic products, lipids and sterols, and drugs.
  • The substrates that can be transported include ions, amino acids, peptides, sugars, and other molecules that are mostly hydrophilic.
  • The membrane-spanning region of the ABC transporter protects hydrophilic substrates from the lipids of the membrane bilayer thus providing a pathway across the cell membrane .

• Clostridial and Propionic Acid Fermentation

  • Acetic acid is equally a co-metabolite of the organic substrates' fermentation (sugars, glycerol, lactic acid, etc.) by diverse groups of microorganisms which produce different acids: Propionic bacteria (propionate + acetate), Clostridium (butyrate + acetate), Enterobacteria (acetate + lactate), Hetero-fermentative bacteria (acetate, propionate, butyrate, valerate, etc.)
  • Hydrolytic bacteria form a variety of reduced end-products from the fermentation of a given substrate.
  • Acetic acid is equally a co-metabolite of the organic substrates' fermentation (sugars, glycerol, lactic acid, etc.) by diverse groups of microorganisms, which produce different acids:

• Fermented Foods

  • Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates.
  • Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and vitamins.

• Polysaccharide Biosynthesis

  • It is used in nucleotide sugars metabolism as an activated form of glucose as a substrate for enzymes called glucosyltransferases.
  • Gluconeogenesis (abbreviated GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).

• Cofactors and Energy Transitions

  • Each class of group-transfer reaction is carried out by a particular cofactor, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it and a set of enzymes that consume it.
  • Here, hundreds of separate types of enzymes remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ to NADH.
  • This reduced cofactor is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that require electrons to reduce their substrates.

• Enzymes Used in Industry

  • In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products .
  • Since enzymes are selective for their substrates and speed up only a few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell.
  • However, enzymes do differ from most other catalysts in that they are highly specific for their substrates.
  • Activity is also affected by temperature, pressure, chemical environment (e.g., pH), and substrate concentration.

• Aerobic Hydrocarbon Oxidation

  • When grown on hydrocarbon substrate as the carbon source, these microorganisms synthesize a wide range of chemicals with surface activity, such as glycolipid, phospholipid, and others.
  • These chemicals are synthesized to emulsify the hydrocarbon substrate and facilitate its transport into the cells.

• Benzoate Catabolism

  • Rhodococci typically metabolize aromatic substrates by first oxygenating the aromatic ring to form a diol (two alcohol groups).
  • Then, the ring is cleaved with intra/extradiol mechanisms, opening the ring and exposing the substrate to further metabolism.