observational research

Examples of observational research in the following topics:

• Observation

  • Often researchers in observational studies will try to blend in seamlessly with the sample group to avoid compromising the results of their observations.
  • Observational research is a type of descriptive research that differs from most other forms of data gathering in that the researcher's goal is not to manipulate the variables being observed.
  • Unlike correlational and experimental research which use quantitative data, observational studies tend to use qualitative data.
  • The hypotheses that result from these observations will guide the researcher in shaping data into results.
  • Some studies require dozens of observation sessions lasting for several hours and sometimes involving several researchers.

• Methods for Researching Human Development

  • In a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age.
  • Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals and hypothesize the causes of such variation.
  • In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time.
  • A researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups.
  • In a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time and observes them as they age.

• Descriptive Research

  • Descriptive research refers to the measurement of behaviors and attributes through observation rather than through experimental testing.
  • These studies are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured.
  • Descriptive research is distinct from correlational research, in which psychologists formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables.
  • Correlational and experimental research both typically use hypothesis testing, whereas descriptive research does not.
  • One important kind of descriptive research in psychology is the case study, which uses interviews, observation, or records to gain an in-depth understanding of a single person, group, or phenomenon.

• Case Studies

  • Cast studies also tend to be far more in-depth than observational research in that they use multiple measures or records and focus on a single subject.
  • Case studies use techniques such as personal interviews, direct observation, psychometric tests, and archival records to gather information.
  • However, they cannot be generalized to the overall population, as can experimental research, and they cannot provide predictive power, as can correlational research.
  • Lastly, this type of research also allows for the observation of phenomenon in real-life situations.
  • Case studies cannot be generalized to the overall population, as in experimental research, nor can they provide predictive power, as in correlational research.

• General Strengths and Limitations of Trait Perspectives

  • One strength of the trait perspectives is their ability to categorize observable behaviors.
  • Researchers have found that examining the aggregate behaviors of individuals provides a strong correlation with traits; in other words, observing the behaviors of an individual over time and in varying circumstances provides evidence for the personality traits categorized in trait theories.
  • Another limitation of trait theories is that they require personal observations or subjective self-reports to measure.
  • Personal observation measures require that an individual spend enough time observing someone else in a number of situations to be able to provide an accurate assessment of their behaviors.
  • Both of these measures are subjective and can fall prey to observer bias and other forms of inaccuracy.

• Psychology and the Scientific Method: From Theory to Conclusion

  • A theory is used to make predictions about future observations.
  • For a hypothesis to be falsifiable, it must be logically possible to make an observation or do a physical experiment that would show that there is no support for the hypothesis.
  • In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a researcher must first observe natural phenomena.
  • By making observations, a researcher can define a useful question.
  • Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological rigor.

• Bandura and Observational Learning

  • One of the first recorded instances of observational learning in research was the 1961 study performed by Albert Bandura.
  • Observers have to not only recognize the observed behavior, but also remember it.
  • In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses, but sometimes reproducing the observed actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired.
  • An observer must be motivated to reproduce the actions they have seen.
  • Describe the conditions that must be met for observational learning to occur

• Criticisms of the Social-Cognitive Pespective on Personality

  • It posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.
  • This means that an individual can learn from observing others, as opposed to only being able to learn from their own experiences.
  • For example, researchers currently cannot find a connection between observational learning and self-efficacy within the social-cognitive perspective.
  • Another limitation is that not all social learning can be directly observed.
  • Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated, and factors of development are not included.

• Heuristics and Cognitive Biases

  • Once data has been gathered, the researcher must analyze and interpret it.
  • Consider the following research example.
  • However, this heuristic can introduce bias in research, in which it is by definition important to remain an objective observer.
  • Hindsight bias occurs in psychological research when researchers form "post hoc hypotheses."
  • Confirmation bias is especially dangerous in psychological research.

• Experimental Research

  • Then the psychologist observes the children socialize afterwards to determine if the children in the "violent video game" condition behave more aggressively than the children in the "non-violent video game" condition.
  • Identifying a question and performing preliminary research to determine what is already known
  • When workers were observed in additional lighting they were more productive, but only because they were being watched.
  • If a control group was also observed with no additional lighting this effect would have been obvious.
  • To preserve the integrity of the control group, both researcher(s) and subject(s) may be "blinded."